A/B Testing is a way of comparing two versions of something to find out which works better. For example, an organisation might show one group of people a button saying “Apply now” and another group a button saying “Get started”, then compare how many people click. Only one main feature should usually be changed at a time, otherwise it becomes difficult to know what caused the difference. A/B Testing replaces guesswork and personal preference with evidence about what people actually do.

Anchoring is the tendency for the first number, idea or option a person sees to influence the judgements they make afterwards. For example, if the first price someone sees is £1,000, a later price of £700 may feel cheap, even if £700 is still expensive. The first piece of information acts like an anchor dropped from a boat: later judgements can move around, but they often remain tied to that starting point.

Audience Segmentation is the process of dividing a large audience into smaller groups whose members have something important in common. These groups might have different needs, experiences, concerns or reasons for acting. For example, new customers may need basic information, while existing customers may need help using a service. Audience Segmentation helps an organisation avoid sending the same message to everyone, even when different people need different information.

Behaviour Change is a real and measurable difference in what people do. It could mean helping someone start a useful action, stop a harmful one or continue a positive habit. For example, a campaign may aim to increase recycling, encourage staff to report safety problems or help patients attend appointments. Behaviour Change is different from simply raising awareness. A person can understand a message and agree with it without changing their behaviour.

A Behavioural Audit is a careful review of the things that shape how people behave within a service, process or organisation. It looks at issues such as confusing instructions, unnecessary steps, rewards, habits, social pressure and the physical or digital environment. It is similar to checking a route for obstacles before asking people to travel along it. The aim is to understand why people behave as they do and identify practical ways to make the desired action easier.

Behavioural Economics is the study of how people make decisions about things such as money, time, risk and rewards. Traditional economic theories often assume that people carefully compare every option and choose what benefits them most. In real life, people become tired, follow habits, avoid losses and are influenced by how choices are presented. Behavioural Economics combines ideas from economics and psychology to explain these more realistic patterns of decision-making.

Behavioural Insights are useful lessons drawn from research and evidence about how people think, decide and behave. They help organisations understand why people may ignore information, delay an action or choose one option over another. For example, research may show that a reminder works better when it arrives close to the time someone needs to act. Behavioural Insights should guide testing and design, rather than being treated as guaranteed tricks that work in every situation.

Behavioural Science is the organised study of human behaviour. It draws on subjects such as psychology, economics, sociology and cognitive science to understand how people think, make choices and respond to their surroundings. Organisations can use Behavioural Science to improve services, policies, workplaces and communications. It is less about trying to manipulate people and more about designing systems that take account of how people actually behave in everyday life.

Brand Positioning is the clear idea an organisation wants people to hold about it. It explains who the organisation is for, what it offers, how it is different and why people should trust it. For example, two companies may sell similar products, but one may want to be known as affordable and simple, while another wants to be known as specialist and premium. Brand Positioning is like choosing the particular shelf in people’s minds where you want your organisation to sit.

A Campaign Strategy is a plan for achieving a particular result through organised communication and activity. It identifies the goal, the people who need to be reached, what they need to think or do, the main message, the best channels and how success will be measured. For example, a campaign might aim to increase vaccinations or gain support for a local project. A Campaign Strategy is the route map; posters, videos and social media posts are only the individual stops along the route.

Change Communications is the communication used to help people understand and respond to a change. This might involve a new computer system, a change in leadership, a company restructure or a different way of delivering a service. Good Change Communications explains what is changing, why it is happening, when it will happen and what people need to do. It should also recognise people’s worries and questions, rather than acting as though everyone will immediately welcome the change.

Choice Architecture is the way options are arranged and presented to people. The order of choices, the number of options, the wording, the default setting and the amount of effort required can all influence what someone chooses. A supermarket arranges products on shelves, while a website arranges buttons and forms on a screen. In both cases, the design of the environment shapes the decision, even though people remain free to choose.

Co-design is a way of creating a service, policy or solution with the people who will use it or be affected by it. Instead of professionals designing everything alone and asking for opinions at the end, users are involved throughout the process. For example, disabled passengers might help design a more accessible transport service. Co-design does not mean every suggestion must be accepted, but it gives people a meaningful role in shaping the final result.

A Cognitive Bias is a common pattern of thinking that can affect a person’s judgement. People use mental shortcuts because they cannot carefully examine every piece of information all the time. These shortcuts are often useful, but they can also lead to unfair or inaccurate conclusions. For example, someone may pay more attention to evidence that supports what they already believe. A Cognitive Bias is not simply stupidity; it is a normal feature of how human thinking works.

Cognitive Load is the amount of mental effort needed to understand information or complete a task. A page full of technical language, long instructions and several competing buttons creates a high Cognitive Load. When people have too much to process, they may become confused, make mistakes or give up. Cognitive Load is like carrying shopping bags: one or two may be manageable, but adding more eventually makes even a simple journey difficult.

The COM-B Model is a framework for understanding why a behaviour happens. It suggests that a person needs capability, opportunity and motivation to carry out an action. Capability means having the knowledge and ability. Opportunity means having the right environment, resources and social support. Motivation means having enough reason or desire to act. For example, someone may want to exercise but lack a safe place or enough time. The COM-B Model helps identify which part of the situation needs to change.

A Communications Audit is a structured review of how an organisation currently communicates. It looks at what messages are being shared, who receives them, which channels are used, who is responsible and whether the communication is achieving anything useful. It may reveal repeated messages, gaps, conflicting information or activity that has no clear purpose. A Communications Audit is similar to checking everything in a cupboard before deciding what to keep, remove or reorganise.

A Communications Plan is a practical document that sets out what an organisation will communicate, who it will communicate with, which channels it will use and when each activity will happen. It may include emails, events, press releases, social media posts or staff briefings. A Communications Plan is usually focused on delivery. It is the timetable and task list that puts a wider Communications Strategy into action.

A Communications Strategy is a plan explaining how communication will help an organisation achieve a larger goal. It identifies which audiences matter, what needs to change, what those audiences need to understand, which messages will help and how success will be measured. For example, the goal may be to increase the use of a public service, rather than simply to publish more posts. A Communications Strategy explains why communication is happening, not just what content will be produced.

Community Engagement is the process of building relationships and working with people who share a place, experience or interest. It involves listening to people, understanding their concerns and giving them meaningful ways to contribute. For example, a council planning changes to a town centre might work with residents, businesses and local groups. Community Engagement is a conversation, not simply an organisation speaking through a loudspeaker and expecting everyone else to listen.

Consultation is a formal process in which an organisation asks people for their views before making or finalising a decision. It should explain what is being proposed, what can still change, how people can respond and how their feedback will be considered. Consultation is not a public vote, and the most popular answer does not always have to be chosen. However, people should be able to see that their responses were read and taken seriously.

A Customer Journey is the full series of steps a person goes through when dealing with an organisation. It might begin when they first hear about a service and continue through applying, paying, receiving support and asking for help. Mapping the Customer Journey helps an organisation see the experience from the user’s point of view. It is like walking the whole route yourself rather than only examining one doorway along the way.

Dark Patterns are designs that trick, pressure or confuse people into doing something they may not have chosen freely. Examples include hiding the button used to cancel a subscription, adding items to a basket automatically or making the “accept” option much clearer than the “decline” option. Dark Patterns use knowledge of behaviour against the user. They may increase short-term sales or sign-ups, but they can damage trust and may break consumer protection rules.

Decision Architecture is the design of the system through which a decision is made. It includes who is allowed to decide, what information they receive, which options are considered, what standards are used and how the final decision is recorded and carried out. For example, a poorly designed meeting may have no clear question, too much information and no named decision-maker. Decision Architecture is like designing the room, rules and route through which a decision must travel.

Decision Criteria are the standards used to judge and compare different options. For example, when choosing a supplier, an organisation might compare cost, quality, reliability and environmental impact. Agreeing the Decision Criteria before discussing favourite options makes the process fairer and clearer. It is similar to agreeing the rules of a competition before seeing who enters, rather than changing the rules to help the person you already prefer.

A Decision Environment is the situation in which a decision takes place. It includes the information available, the time allowed, the people present, the physical or digital setting and any pressure or distractions. The same person may make a different choice when rushed, tired or surrounded by other people. A Decision Environment is like the weather around a journey: it does not decide the destination, but it can strongly affect how the traveller gets there.

Decision Rights are clear rules about who has the power to make a decision and what role everyone else has. One person may gather evidence, another may advise, and someone else may give final approval. Without clear Decision Rights, meetings can continue without an outcome, decisions may be repeated or people may interfere after a choice has been made. Decision Rights answer the simple but important question: who actually gets to decide?

A Default is the option that applies automatically when a person does not make an active choice. For example, a form may automatically select paperless billing unless the user changes it. Defaults matter because people often accept the option already in place, especially when they are busy or unsure. A Default is like the path a moving walkway places you on: you can step off, but remaining where you are requires the least effort.

The Default Effect is the tendency for people to remain with an option that has already been selected for them. This can happen because changing the option takes effort, because the default appears to be recommended or because people worry about making the wrong choice. For example, more people may join a workplace pension when joining is automatic. The Default Effect describes the behaviour; the Default is the option itself.

The EAST Framework is a simple tool for designing actions around human behaviour. It suggests that a desired action is more likely when it is Easy, Attractive, Social and Timely. Easy means reducing effort. Attractive means gaining attention or offering a clear benefit. Social means recognising the influence of other people. Timely means asking at the right moment. EAST is a useful checklist, but it should not replace research into the particular people and situation involved.

An Engagement Strategy is a plan for involving the people who matter to a project, service or organisation. It explains who should be involved, why their involvement matters, what they can influence, how conversations will happen and how the organisation will respond. For example, some people may need regular workshops while others only need clear updates. An Engagement Strategy prevents engagement from becoming a collection of unrelated meetings with no clear purpose.

An Evaluation Framework is a plan for checking whether a project, programme or strategy has worked. It identifies what success would look like, what information will be collected, when it will be collected and who will review it. For example, a training programme might measure more than how many people attended; it might also examine whether skills improved. An Evaluation Framework is the measuring tape used to judge results rather than relying on impressions.

Facilitation is the process of helping a group have a useful discussion, solve a problem or reach a decision. A facilitator plans the structure, makes sure different voices can be heard, keeps the conversation focused and helps the group move towards an outcome. The facilitator does not necessarily provide the answer. Facilitation is similar to conducting an orchestra: the conductor helps everyone work together but does not play every instrument.

A Feedback Loop is a process in which the results of an action provide information that affects what happens next. For example, a service may collect complaints, identify a repeated problem, change its process and then check whether complaints fall. Without a Feedback Loop, organisations can continue repeating the same activity without learning from it. It is like steering a bicycle: small signals about direction allow constant adjustments along the journey.

Framing is the way an issue, choice or piece of information is described. Different descriptions can draw attention to different parts of the same situation. For example, people may react differently to “90% of patients recover” and “10% of patients do not recover”, even though the figures mean the same thing. Framing is like placing a picture inside a frame: the frame does not change the picture, but it influences what the viewer notices.

Friction is anything that makes an action harder, slower or more confusing. It may include a long form, unclear instructions, extra passwords, waiting times or not knowing who to contact. Some friction is necessary, such as identity checks that protect people from fraud. Unnecessary friction, however, can cause people to give up. Like friction between two physical surfaces, it slows movement and requires more effort to continue.

Governance is the set of rules and structures used to direct an organisation and hold it accountable. It covers who makes decisions, who checks performance, how risks are managed and what happens when something goes wrong. Boards, committees, reporting systems and approval processes can all form part of Governance. Governance is similar to the rules and officials in a sport: it helps ensure that decisions are made properly and responsibilities are clear.

A Heuristic is a mental shortcut people use to make a quick judgement. For example, someone may choose a busy restaurant because they assume that a large crowd means the food is good. Heuristics save time and mental effort, which makes them useful in everyday life. However, they can also produce mistakes when the shortcut does not fit the situation. A Heuristic is like using a rule of thumb instead of measuring everything exactly.

An Implementation Gap is the difference between what an organisation plans to do and what actually happens. A strategy may look impressive on paper but fail because responsibilities are unclear, staff lack resources or the process is too difficult. The Implementation Gap is the space between the drawing of a bridge and the finished bridge people can actually cross. Closing it requires attention to delivery, not only good ideas.

An Incentive is something that makes a behaviour more or less attractive. It might be a financial reward, public recognition, a penalty, extra convenience or approval from other people. For example, a shop may offer a discount for returning reusable containers. Incentives can be powerful, but they can also create unexpected results if people focus on the reward rather than the real purpose. What an organisation rewards often reveals what it truly values.

An Insight is a useful understanding that changes how a problem is seen or solved. Information alone is not necessarily an Insight. For example, knowing that many people abandon an online form is data. Discovering that they leave because the form asks for information they do not have is an Insight. An Insight is the moment when scattered clues form a clear picture that can guide a better decision.

Internal Communications is the way information and ideas are shared with people inside an organisation. This includes staff emails, meetings, intranets, briefings and conversations between teams. Good Internal Communications helps employees understand priorities, make decisions and know what is expected of them. It is not simply a company newsletter. It is closer to an organisation’s nervous system, carrying information between different parts so they can work together.

Key Messages are the small number of main ideas an organisation wants people to understand and remember. They turn a large or complicated subject into clear points that can be repeated across speeches, websites, interviews and conversations. Key Messages should not be empty slogans. Each should communicate something meaningful and be supported by evidence. They are the main beams holding up the wider structure of a communication campaign.

Loss Aversion is the tendency for people to feel the pain of losing something more strongly than the pleasure of gaining something of similar value. For example, losing £20 may feel worse than finding £20 feels good. This can make people resist change because they focus on what they might give up. Loss Aversion helps explain why a proposal offering future benefits may still feel threatening when it involves an immediate loss.

A Message Architecture is an organised structure showing how an organisation’s messages fit together. It usually begins with one central idea, followed by supporting themes, evidence, examples and messages for particular audiences. A Message Architecture helps different people communicate consistently without reading from exactly the same script. It is like the plan of a building: individual rooms can look different, but they are all supported by the same structure.

Message Testing is the process of checking how people understand and respond to a message before it is widely used. An organisation might ask whether the message is clear, believable, relevant, memorable or likely to encourage action. Testing can involve interviews, surveys, discussion groups or A/B Testing. Message Testing matters because the meaning intended by the writer is not always the meaning understood by the reader.

The Messenger Effect is the way the person delivering a message influences how that message is received. People may trust information from a doctor, friend, community leader or expert differently, even when the words are identical. The best Messenger depends on the audience and the subject. A message is like a parcel: people judge not only what is inside, but also who delivered it and whether they trust the sender.

A Nudge is a small change to the way a choice is presented that influences behaviour without removing anyone’s options. Examples include placing healthier food at eye level, using a helpful reminder or making a useful choice the default. People remain free to choose differently. A Nudge changes the slope of the path rather than building a wall. It can make one action easier, but it should not be used to hide important information or trick people.

An Operating Model is the practical system an organisation uses to turn its strategy into everyday work. It explains how people, teams, processes, technology, money and decision-making fit together. A strategy may say where the organisation wants to go, while the Operating Model explains how it will travel there. It is similar to the engine and controls of a vehicle: the destination matters, but the machine must also be able to move.

Organisational Culture is the collection of shared expectations, behaviours, routines and signals that shape how work is actually done. Culture is influenced by what leaders reward, tolerate, prioritise and repeatedly do, not only by stated values. An organisation may say that it welcomes new ideas, but staff will learn something different if people are criticised whenever they challenge a senior person. Culture is often described as “how things are really done around here”.

An Outcome is the change or benefit that happens because of an activity. For example, delivering ten training sessions is an activity, while staff becoming more confident and skilled is an Outcome. Outcomes focus on the difference made to people, behaviour or performance. They help answer the question “What changed?” rather than only “What did we do?” A project can produce many things without producing the Outcome it was meant to achieve.

An Output is a product, service or activity produced by an organisation. Examples include a report, website, workshop, campaign or number of appointments delivered. Outputs are usually easy to count, but they do not show whether anything improved. Printing 5,000 leaflets is an Output; more people using a service may be an Outcome. Outputs describe the ingredients or completed tasks, not the difference those tasks ultimately make.

The Path of Least Resistance is the action that feels easiest, clearest or most natural in a particular situation. People often follow this path because they are busy, tired or uncertain, not because they have carefully compared every option. For example, people are more likely to use a bin when it is visible and nearby. Good design makes the helpful action the easier route, rather than expecting people to overcome unnecessary obstacles.

Present Bias is the tendency to give more importance to what happens now than to what may happen later. For example, someone may choose the immediate comfort of staying in bed over the future benefit of exercising. The distant reward feels less powerful than the immediate cost. Present Bias helps explain why people delay saving money, completing forms or making healthy choices, even when they genuinely care about the future result.

Priming is the idea that seeing or experiencing one thing can affect how a person responds to something that comes afterwards. For example, words connected with speed may make speed-related ideas easier to recognise later. However, Priming effects are often subtle and can depend heavily on the situation. Organisations should be careful not to treat Priming as a magic method for controlling behaviour, especially without strong evidence or testing.

Public Affairs is the work an organisation does to understand and influence government, politics and public policy. It can include speaking with politicians, responding to proposed laws, building relationships with officials and explaining how a policy may affect people or businesses. Public Affairs is broader than media coverage. It is about helping decision-makers understand an organisation’s position and the evidence supporting it.

A Public Consultation is a formal process used to gather the public’s views about a proposed policy, service or decision. It should clearly explain what is being considered, which parts can still change and how people can respond. A Public Consultation is not meaningful if the decision has already been made and feedback cannot affect anything. It should create a genuine doorway into the decision, not merely a painted door on a wall.

RACI is a framework for explaining people’s roles in a task or decision. The letters stand for Responsible, Accountable, Consulted and Informed. The Responsible person does the work. The Accountable person owns the final result. Consulted people give advice, while Informed people are kept updated. RACI can prevent confusion when several people are involved, although it should not become a complicated chart that creates more uncertainty than it removes.

Reciprocity is the tendency for people to respond to a helpful or generous action with a helpful action of their own. For example, someone may be more willing to help a colleague who has supported them in the past. Reciprocity helps relationships and communities work because people return favours and cooperation. However, it can become unfair when a gift or favour is used deliberately to make someone feel pressured or indebted.

Reputation Management is the work of understanding and influencing what people think and feel about an organisation. Communication is part of this, but reputation also depends on behaviour, decisions, service quality and whether promises are kept. An organisation cannot build a strong reputation through positive publicity alone if people repeatedly have a poor experience. Reputation is more like a bank balance built over time than a coat of paint applied overnight.

Salience is the degree to which something stands out and attracts attention. Information can be important but still be missed if it is hidden in a long document, surrounded by clutter or shown at the wrong time. Making something salient might involve clearer wording, a better position or a well-timed reminder. Salience is like a bright object in a crowded room: people are more likely to notice and respond to what catches their attention.

Service Design is the process of planning how a service should work from beginning to end. It considers the user’s experience as well as the people, systems and processes needed behind the scenes. For example, improving a hospital appointment service may involve letters, booking systems, staff roles and waiting rooms. Service Design is like designing both the stage and backstage of a theatre performance so the whole experience works smoothly.

Simplification is the process of making information, decisions or tasks easier to understand and complete. This may involve removing unnecessary steps, using familiar words or presenting information in a clearer order. Simplification does not mean treating people as unintelligent or hiding important details. It means clearing away avoidable complexity, like removing clutter from a path so people can see where they are going.

Sludge is unnecessary or unfair friction that makes a useful action harder than it needs to be. It can include long forms, repeated requests for the same information, confusing cancellation processes or avoidable delays. Sludge often affects people who have the least time, confidence or support most severely. It is the administrative equivalent of making someone walk through thick mud when a clear path could have been provided.

A Sludge Audit is a detailed review of the effort required to complete a process. It may count the number of steps, the time taken, the information requested and the points where people become confused or give up. A Sludge Audit also considers emotional effort, such as anxiety or embarrassment. Its purpose is to identify unnecessary burdens while keeping safeguards that serve a genuine purpose.

Social Norms are the unwritten expectations within a group about what people usually do or what they believe people should do. For example, people may queue because it is seen as normal and fair, even when no written rule requires it. Social Norms can encourage positive behaviour, but they can also maintain harmful habits. They act like invisible rules that people learn by watching and responding to others.

Social Proof is the tendency to use other people’s behaviour as a guide when deciding what to do. A busy restaurant may appear more attractive because the crowd suggests that it is good. Social Proof is especially powerful when people are uncertain or when they identify with the group being described. However, organisations should use genuine evidence rather than inventing popularity or making misleading claims about what “everyone else” is doing.

A Stakeholder is a person, group or organisation that can affect a decision or be affected by it. Stakeholders might include customers, employees, residents, suppliers, charities, politicians or regulators. Different stakeholders may want different things and have different levels of influence. The term is useful because it reminds organisations that a decision often reaches beyond the people sitting in the meeting where it is made.

Stakeholder Engagement is the process of building relationships and communicating with the people or organisations affected by a decision. It involves listening, sharing information, discussing concerns and explaining how views will be used. Good Stakeholder Engagement is not simply sending updates after everything has been decided. It gives people an appropriate opportunity to shape the issue and helps organisations make better-informed decisions.

Stakeholder Mapping is the process of identifying the people and organisations connected to a project and understanding their interests, needs, influence and relationships. A map may show who needs close involvement, who needs regular information and who may be overlooked. Stakeholder Mapping is like drawing a map before a journey: it helps reveal the important places and connections that might otherwise be missed.

Status Quo Bias is the tendency to prefer the current situation simply because it is familiar. A new option may be better, but changing can feel risky, effortful or uncertain. For example, someone may remain with an expensive supplier because switching requires time and attention. Status Quo Bias is similar to staying in an uncomfortable chair because standing up and finding another one feels like more trouble.

Strategic Alignment is the situation in which an organisation’s goals, decisions, money, staff activity and communications all support the same direction. Misalignment happens when an organisation says one thing is important but rewards something different. For example, a company may claim to value customer service while measuring staff only on speed. Strategic Alignment means that the wheels of the organisation are all pointing the same way.

Strategic Communications is the planned use of communication to help achieve a wider goal. It begins with the result an organisation wants, such as changing behaviour, building trust or gaining support, and then works backwards to decide what communication is needed. Strategic Communications is not the same as producing large amounts of content. It treats communication as a tool for achieving something, rather than an activity that is valuable simply because it happened.

A Strategic Narrative is a clear story that explains where an organisation has come from, what challenge it faces, where it wants to go and why that journey matters. It helps people understand how separate projects and decisions fit together. A Strategic Narrative is more detailed than a slogan but simpler than a full strategy document. It is the thread that joins individual messages into one understandable story.

Strategy is a set of choices about how an organisation will achieve an important goal with limited time, money and resources. It explains what the organisation will focus on, how it will succeed and what it will not do. A list of ambitions is not automatically a Strategy. Strategy is like choosing a route to a destination: it involves deciding which road to take and accepting that other roads will not be followed.

Systems Thinking is a way of understanding a problem by looking at how its different parts affect one another. Instead of blaming one person or one event, it examines rules, relationships, incentives, processes and feedback loops. For example, missed appointments may result from transport, booking systems, work patterns and confusing letters, not simply carelessness. Systems Thinking looks at the whole web rather than pulling on one strand.

A Theory of Change is an explanation of how a set of activities is expected to produce a desired result. It sets out the steps between what an organisation does and the change it hopes to see. For example, training teachers may improve teaching practice, which may then improve pupils’ learning. A Theory of Change also identifies assumptions that might be wrong. It is similar to showing all the stepping stones needed to cross a river.

Tone of Voice is the consistent way an organisation sounds when it communicates. It may be friendly, serious, direct, reassuring or formal, depending on the organisation and the situation. Tone of Voice affects word choice, sentence length and how information is explained. It does not mean using exactly the same tone everywhere. A hospital warning and a celebration post may sound different while still feeling as though they come from the same organisation.

User Research is the process of learning about the people who use, or may use, a service, product or system. It can involve interviews, observation, surveys, testing and analysis of behaviour. User Research helps reveal what people need, where they struggle and how their real experience differs from the organisation’s assumptions. It is the difference between designing from behind a desk and watching what happens in the real world.

A Value Proposition is a clear explanation of why a particular person or organisation should choose, support or use something. It identifies the problem or need, the benefit being offered and what makes that offer different from the alternatives. For example, “high-quality advice” is too vague on its own. A strong Value Proposition explains who the advice is for, what it helps them achieve and why this provider is a good choice.